Promoting understanding of Soft Power Theory : a case study of Confucius Institutes along the Belt and Road

Author

Dan YANG (楊丹)

Date of Award

8-1-2025

Degree Type

Thesis

Degree Name

Doctor of Policy Studies (DPS)

First Advisor

Prof. YANG Shen

Abstract

This dissertation explores the function of Confucius Institutes (CI) as key tools within China’s soft power approach, particularly in the framework of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). It provides a detailed and empirically based analysis of how these institutes operate within various national contexts. Drawing upon Joseph Nye’s soft power theory and supported by literature on public diplomacy, this study assesses the ways in which CIs translate cultural, linguistic, and educational assets into international influence. Despite the rapid expansion of CIs globally, their actual effectiveness in achieving cultural diplomacy and tangible soft power outcomes remains uncertain. Advocates emphasize the institutes’ contributions to language instruction and intercultural understanding, whereas critics caution about their politicized curricula and possible threats to academic independence. This ongoing debate reveals a significant gap in research: the absence of systematic and contextually nuanced studies on CI operations, local stakeholder perceptions, and the practical achievement of soft power. The dissertation situates CIs within China’s foreign policy and cultural diplomacy toolkit, particularly under the BRI framework that aims to foster economic, infrastructural, and cultural connectivity. As over 70% of CIs are located in BRI countries, understanding their functionality and broader effectiveness within this policy framework is both valuable and significant. The research sets out five core objectives: to analyse the institutional structures and resource foundations of Cis: assess the activities used to engage local communities, evaluate outputs including reach, visibility, and participation, investigate perceptual outcomes among host hosts populations, and identify the contextual variables—political, cultural, and geopolitical—that shape the influence of CIs across settings.

To achieve these aims, the dissertation develops a novel soft power assessment model, which integrates the input–activity–output–outcome model with insights from soft power and public diplomacy theory. This framework enables a multidimensional evaluation of CI performance by attending to both institutional practices and host-country contingencies. Drawing on qualitative data from seven BRI countries including Russia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Pakistan, Germany, Austria, and Slovenia. The study employs purposive and snowball sampling methods to gather perspectives from five key stakeholders’ groups: CI staff, local university partners, program participants, community members, and policymakers. Semi-structured interviews were analysed using NVivo 23, allowing for thematic coding and comparative analysis across country contexts.

This study finds that the operational effectiveness of CIs as instruments of Chinese soft power depends not only on substantial material and human resource inputs but also on the degree of local adaptability and engagement. While CIs are well-funded and staffed by trained Chinese instructors, their impact is often constrained by insufficient localization of teaching materials, institutional rigidity, and limited integration beyond elite academic settings. Although cultural activities can effectively engage local communities, particularly when tailored to specific cultural settings, the narrow frameworks of cooperation often restrict broader societal impact. The picture that emerges in the case of teachers is one of the central actors of soft power, who mould perceptions through interpersonal work but whose ability to do so is jeopardized more than in other professions by the shortness of their postings and a lack of adequate logistical and psychological support. This is the reason for localization, as the CIs that engage in the local culture and partner with local community institutions are more legitimate and resonate more widely. Nevertheless, the overall political and societal framework plays a crucial role in shaping these efforts—CIs flourish in welcoming situations, while efforts at CIs are marginalized in politically sceptical settings. In order to explain this dynamic, the study suggests the Contextual Contingency Framework, which conceptualizes soft power outcomes as a multiplicative function of cultural efforts and contextual receptivity. Utilizing Nye’s soft power theory as a foundation, this research is structured in an input– activity–output–outcome model to verify that cultural influence is grounded not only in strategic investment and programming but also in use by the target audience. The conclusions demonstrate that context-aware engagement, locally inclusive integration, and credible, cocreated cultural exchange are the keys to sustainable and lasting soft power. Finally, the research presents a holistic, review-based understanding of discussions surrounding China’s international image and the importance of cultural diplomacy in international affairs. The research advances theoretical and practical contributions by foregrounding how institutional design can build a global ‘thick infrastructure’ for cultural initiatives, mediating the gap between international policy and local contexts and proposing a scalable framework for policymakers evaluating new cultural initiatives.

Language

English

Copyright

The copyright of this thesis is owned by its author. Any reproduction, adaptation, distribution or dissemination of this thesis without express authorization is strictly prohibited.

Recommended Citation

Yang, D. (2025). Promoting understanding of Soft Power Theory: A case study of Confucius Institutes along the Belt and Road (doctoral thesis, Lingnan University, Hong Kong). Retrieved from https://commons.ln.edu.hk/otd_tpg/50/